Tohn “Black Jack” Pershing (American General) commanded the American Expedi- tionary Force (AEF) in Europe during World War I and supervised the evolution of the U.S. military from clusters of small horseback units to a sophisticated army employing mechanized vehicles, airplanes, and machine guns supported by a staff organization that still prevails today. Me reached this pinnacle of success only after having served the U.S. Army in Indian skirmishes in the West, fought in the Spanish-American War in Cuba and the Philippines,
. and led the Punitive Expedition into Mexico in pursuit of Pancho Villa. Pershing’s military career began without fanfare. After his birth on September 13, 1860, in Linn County, Missouri, he grew up as the son of a small-town merchant. Upon completing high school, Pershing remained in the classroom for several years as a teacher before being accepted by the U.S. Military Academy. Pershing graduated from West Point in 1886 as captain of the Cadet Corps despite his academic ranking in the middle of his class.
After receiving his commission in die cavalry, Pershing campaigned against the Apache Indians in the American Southwest and assisted in the roundup of Sioux after the fight at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in 1891. From late 1891 until 1895, Pershing served as a professor of military science at the University of Nebraska and earned a law degree during his off-duty hours.
At the outbreak of the Spanish American War, Captain Pershing commanded a company of the all-black Tenth Cavalry. This assignment, along with his sternness and lack of humor, resulted in his nickname “Blackjack,” which remained with him for the rest of his life. Per-shing and his black soldiers fought well at El Caney and Kettle Hill in Cuba, where he first came to the attention of Theodore Roosevelt.
Following a brief period to recover from malaria contracted in Cuba, Pershing transferred to the Philippines in 1899, where he added to his reputation by devising combat and administrative innovations to pacify the Moro rebels. Pershing alternated tours in the Philippines with* duty as a military attache to Japan and observer of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905-1906.
Pershing’s service in the Philippines and his informative reports from Japan resulted in President Roosevelt’s promoting Captain Pershing directly to brigadier general in 1906. This unusual jumping of several ranks elevated him above nearly nine hundred officers who had outranked him. The promotion to brigadier general clearly demonstrated the confidence die president had in Pershing. Detractors, however, also noted that Pershing had married the daughter of a U.S.* senator with political clout.
Whatever the reason behind Pershing’s meteoric advancement, he proved it a wise choice. After more service in the Far East, Pershing assumed command of the Presidio in San Francisco. Following the raid by Mexican bandit and guerrilla leader Pancho Villa on Columbus, New Mexico, on March 9, 1916, Pershing led the Punitive Expedition into Mexico. Although Pershing failed to capture or kill Villa, he did destroy much of the bandit’s force and disrupted his operations. Pershing also gained important experience in the tactical use of new equipment, including motor vehicles and airplanes, the beginning of the evolution of the U.S. Army from horses to mechanized warfare.
While Pershing pursued Villa, his wife and two daughters died in a house fire at their quarters in San Francisco. An already taciturn Pershing became even colder, more distant, and increasingly demanding as he immersed himself in his work.
On May 12, 1917, Pershing accepted the appointment as commander of the AEF and arrived in France on June 23, coming under immediate pressure to assign arriving American troops to the ranks of the English and French Allies. “Blackjack,” following his instructions from President Woodrow Wilson, refused to commit his forces piecemeal and insisted that U.S. troops remain separate, distinct, and committed to their own area of responsibility. Whenever urged to do otherwise, Pershing repeatedly stated, “I will not be coerced.”
Pershing wavered only once. While still organizing and training his army of 1 million men, he briefly reinforced French combat divisions during the German offensive in the spring of 1918. As soon as the Allies had stabilized their lines, however, Pershing drew his forces back under his control.
In the summer of 1918, Pershing committed the AEF as an independent fighting force in the region of Lorraine. Not willing to become engaged in sustained trench warfare, Pershing immediately assumed the offensive in an attempt to convert static operations to maneuver warfare. The AEF pushed the Germans back in the Aisne-Marne offensive from July 25 to August 2, at Saint-Mihiel on September 12-17, and in the Meuse-Argonne from September 26 until the November 11 armistice.
Though they came to the war late, Pershing and the Americans made a significant impact. While the AEF comprised only 10 percent of the Western Front battle lines, the Germans had to commit fully one-fourth of their army to slow the American advance during the final offensive.
Pershing’s abilities to organize an army of more than a million men while at the same time standing up to the political pressures of the Allies is commendable. He also made significant advances in administering the army by adapting a general staff system of administration (G-l), intelligence (G-2), operations (G-3). and logistics (G-4) that the American army still uses today.
While leading the AEF in France, Pershing was promoted to major general in 1917 and to full general later the same year. Upon his return to the United States, Pershing was promoted to the rank of General of the Armies, a rank held previously only by George Washington [1]. From 1921 until his departure from active duty in 1924, Blackjack served as the army chief of staff. He then worked as the chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission and wrote his memoirs.
Pershing was the most important American soldier of the early twentieth century, and his influence played a direct role in the developments and operations of the U.S. military during World War II. Although in bad health and confined to a hospital from late 1941 until his death, at age eighty-seven, on July 15, 1948, Pershing lived to see the defeat of Germany and Japan in World War II. These were victories influenced by Pershing’s organization of the modern army and its command and staff structure.